How Srirangam Survived the 14th Century: Invasion, Sacred Exile and Vijayanagara Revival

Published by Orugallu Andhalu

 

Introduction: When Bhūloka Vaikuṇṭha Faced History

For centuries, the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam stood as the foremost centre of Śrī Vaiṣṇava worship in South India — a sacred city sustained by royal patronage, temple institutions, and uninterrupted ritual tradition.

By the late Chola and Pandya periods, Srirangam had evolved into one of the wealthiest and most influential temple establishments of medieval India. Its vast enclosures, active festivals, scholarly institutions, and extensive endowments made it not only a religious centre but also an important socio-economic institution.

However, the early fourteenth century marked a turning point in South Indian history.

Political instability following the decline of the Pandya kingdom brought northern military campaigns into the Tamil region. During this turbulent period, Srirangam — revered in tradition as Bhūloka Vaikuṇṭha, the earthly abode of Lord Ranganatha — experienced disruption, displacement, and profound institutional crisis.

Temple chronicles such as the Kōyil Oḷugu, supported by historical and epigraphical studies, preserve the memory of these events: the temporary interruption of worship, the removal of the sacred processional deity for protection, and the long exile that followed.

Yet, the history of Srirangam during the fourteenth century is not merely a story of invasion.

It is equally a story of preservation — of priests, devotees, and ācāryas who safeguarded ritual continuity, ensuring that the living tradition of the temple survived until stability returned under the Vijayanagara rulers.

This phase of exile and restoration would ultimately reshape the devotional identity of Srirangam and give rise to one of its most beloved traditions — the worship of Namperumal, “Our Lord.”

Historical Background and Temple Tradition

By the early fourteenth century, the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam had emerged as one of the foremost religious institutions of South India, enriched through centuries of Chola and Pandya patronage. Its vast endowments, thriving festivals, and position as the spiritual centre of Sri Vaishnavism made it both sacred and politically significant.

Traditional temple chronicles, especially the Kōyil Olugu — the historical record maintained within the Srirangam temple establishment — preserve detailed accounts of a period of grave crisis faced by the shrine during northern military expeditions into South India.

Historical evidence indicates that two separate invasions affected the region during the early fourteenth century:

• the campaign of 1311 CE led by the Delhi Sultanate general Malik Kafur, and
• the later expedition of 1323 CE, conducted by Ulugh Khan, the future Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, following the fall of Warangal.

While temple tradition sometimes associates these events collectively, modern historical study distinguishes them chronologically. The narrative presented here follows the corrected historical framework while drawing upon the incidents preserved in the Kōyil Olugu and Sri Vaishnava tradition.

The events that followed would lead to one of the most dramatic episodes in South Indian temple history — the removal of the sacred processional deity, decades of exile, and the eventual restoration of worship at Srirangam.

Pannīrāyiram Tirumudi Tiruttina Kalabham: The Temple Tragedy

Temple chronicles preserved in the Kōyil Oḷugu refer to a tragic episode remembered in Sri Vaishnava tradition as “Pannīrāyiram Tirumudi Tiruttina Kalabham”, literally meaning the calamity in which twelve thousand sacred heads were taken.

According to this traditional account, during the occupation of Srirangam following the expedition of Ulugh Khan (later Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq) in the early fourteenth century, a large gathering of Sri Vaishnava devotees had assembled within the temple precincts during a festival observance. The chronicle records that violence followed the military takeover, resulting in the killing of a great number of devotees, scholars, and temple servants.

Among those remembered in Sri Vaishnava literary tradition was Sudarśana Bhaṭṭa, the distinguished scholar associated with the commentary Śruta Prakāśikā. The loss of learned teachers and temple personnel profoundly affected the institutional life of Srirangam.

While modern historians treat numerical figures preserved in temple chronicles with caution, the episode remains deeply embedded in the collective memory of the Sri Vaishnava community as a moment of immense sacrifice preceding the removal of the sacred processional deity from the temple.

The tragedy formed the immediate historical background to the decision taken by temple authorities and ācāryas to safeguard Namperumal by removing the deity from Srirangam, ensuring the survival of ritual tradition during the years of political instability that followed. 

Vellai Gopuram and the Memory of Crisis

Among the many gateways of Srirangam, the eastern entrance known today as the Vellai Gopuram (White Tower) occupies a special place in temple memory.

Characterised by its lime-washed appearance rather than coloured stucco decoration, the tower historically functioned as an important access point between the outer temple streets and sacred inner enclosures.

Of the twenty-one gopurams that mark the vast temple complex of Srirangam, the eastern gateway known as the Vellai Gopuram (“White Tower”) occupies a distinctive architectural position. Rising to a height of approximately 44 metres (about 144 feet), the tower differs visually from many later gopurams of South Indian temples. Unlike the vividly coloured stucco superstructures characteristic of Nayak-period gateways, this gopuram historically remained lime-washed and uncoloured, giving rise to its enduring name Vellai, meaning “white.”

The relative simplicity of its appearance contrasts with the monumental scale of surrounding towers, linking the structure to an earlier architectural phase of the temple while preserving memories associated with one of the most turbulent periods in Srirangam’s history.

During the fourteenth-century disturbances, temple gateways assumed strategic importance for regulating movement and safeguarding sacred objects.

Tradition of Vellayi

Sri Vaishnava oral tradition associates this gateway with a woman remembered as Vellayi, connected with temple service.

According to later devotional narratives, devotees attempted to delay advancing forces while priests removed sacred images from the temple. Vellayi is remembered in tradition as having aided this effort through personal sacrifice.

Although inscriptional evidence does not directly record this episode, the association survives in temple memory, and the gateway gradually came to be known as Vellai Gopuram.

Thus the structure represents not only architecture, but collective remembrance of devotion during crisis.

Between History and Sacred Memory

Historical records confirm that the temple faced occupation and disruption during the fourteenth century. The Kōyil Olugu describes emergency measures taken by devotees, including:

• closing shrine entrances,
• concealing important icons,
• and organising the removal of the processional deity.

Within this broader context, traditions connected with the Vellai Gopuram reflect how collective memory preserved acts of courage and devotion during a moment of existential danger for the temple.

Thus, the gateway stands today not only as an architectural structure but also as a symbolic reminder of the human effort that contributed to the survival of Srirangam’s sacred tradition.

Breach of the Northern Entrance and Defence of the Temple

Temple chronicles preserved in the Kōyil Oḷugu provide rare administrative details regarding the initial entry of invading forces into Srirangam during the early fourteenth-century campaign.

The record states that the army entered the temple-city through the northern gateway, one of the controlled entrances into the sacred enclosures of Srirangam.

This entrance was placed under the authority of the Ārya Bhaṭṭas, identified in the chronicle as northern Brahmin functionaries responsible for supervision and protection of that sector of the temple.

Guarding the gateway was a temple defence unit led by a guard remembered as Panjukondān.

According to the chronicle:

• the defenders attempted resistance at the northern entrance,
• the guards were overpowered,
• and the invading forces subsequently entered the temple complex.

This episode represents the first recorded breach of Srirangam’s sacred enclosure.

Emergency Removal of Namperumal

At the time of the invasion, a major temple festival was in progress, during which the processional deity of Lord Ranganatha — the utsava murti Azhagiya Maṇavāḷa Perumal (Namperumal) — had been ceremonially taken toward a shrine on the banks of the river Kāverī.

Upon receiving news of the advancing forces of Ulugh Khan, Śrīrangarājanātha Vadūla Deśika, then serving as chief priest of the temple, immediately ordered the dispersal of the procession. Recognising the imminent danger, he arranged for the sacred image together with important temple jewels to be secretly removed toward safer regions in the south.

Shortly thereafter, the invading army entered Srirangam, leading to disruption of worship within the temple complex.

Safeguarding Namperumal: The Sacred Image Taken into Exile

As military forces advanced toward Srirangam in the early fourteenth century, temple authorities realised that the preservation of the processional deity — Azhagiya Maṇavāḷa Perumal (Namperumal) — was essential for maintaining ritual continuity.

The Kōyil Olugu records that under the guidance of the revered Sri Vaishnava acharya Pillai Lokacharya, a small group of priests and devotees undertook the urgent task of removing the utsava images from the temple before hostile forces entered the sacred complex.

Along with Namperumal, the accompanying images of Śrīdevī and Bhūdevī, temple jewels, and essential ritual objects required for daily worship were carried away secretly.

Temple entrances were sealed, and several shrines were concealed in order to protect remaining sacred images.

The Difficult Journey Southward

The flight from Srirangam was neither direct nor secure.
Traditional accounts preserved in the Kōyil Olugu describe a prolonged and uncertain journey undertaken to avoid military routes.

The deity was successively taken through several sacred centres including:

• Jyotiṣkudi, where Pillai Lokacharya is said to have attained his final days,
• Tirumalirunjolai (Azhagar Kovil),
• regions of Kerala including Kozhikode, where displaced temple images from other shrines had also found refuge,
• and later toward Karnataka territories.

During these movements, the party reportedly faced hardships, loss of possessions, and constant danger while attempting to preserve uninterrupted worship.

Despite displacement, ritual service to Namperumal continued wherever the deity was housed ensuring that temple tradition survived even in exile.

Preservation at Tirumala

Sources agree that the utsava deity ultimately reached Tirumala, where it remained for several decades.

Epigraphical studies referenced by Dr. E. Hultzsch confirm the presence of a Srirangam image worshipped alongside Lord Venkateswara during this disturbed political period.

For nearly half a century, Namperumal continued to receive worship away from His original shrine.

The prolonged exile of Namperumal continued until political stability gradually returned to South India with the emergence of the Vijayanagara Empire.

 

Vijayanagara Restoration of Srirangam

Return, Reconsecration and Institutional Renewal (14th Century)

The political situation in South India changed significantly with the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire during the mid-fourteenth century. Under rulers such as Bukka Raya I and his son Kumara Kampana, military campaigns were undertaken to restore stability across territories formerly controlled by the Pandyas.

Temple chronicles together with inscriptional evidence record that a Vijayanagara commander, Goppana (Gopanna Udaiyar), while serving under Kampana, learned during pilgrimage that the sacred processional deity of Srirangam — Namperumal — was being preserved at Tirumala following earlier disturbances.

Recognising the religious and political importance of restoring worship at Srirangam, Goppana arranged for the deity to be ceremonially brought southward. As conditions in the region were still unsettled, the image was first housed under royal protection at Senji (Gingee), where worship continued until the temple-city could safely be restored.

Return and Reconsecration (1371 CE)

Following the successful re-establishment of Vijayanagara authority in the Tamil region, Srirangam was returned to temple custodians.

In 1371 CE (Śaka 1293):

• Namperumal was ceremonially brought back to Srirangam,
• reinstated within the temple,
• regular worship formally resumed,
• and the traditional ritual system re-established.

Inscriptions published in Epigraphia Indica affirm that Goppana supervised the reconsecration and revival of temple administration.

This moment marked not merely the reopening of a shrine, but the revival of an institution that had survived decades of exile through organised devotional effort.

Restoration of Sacred Order

With renewed Vijayanagara patronage, large-scale restoration followed:

• damaged structures were repaired,
• temple gateways and shrines restored,
• festivals recommenced,
• and Sri Vaishnava ācāryas re-established theological and ritual authority.

Sanskrit verses commemorating this restoration were inscribed on the Dharmavarma enclosure wall, praising Goppana as the patron who restored Lord Ranganatha to His sacred city.

The return of Namperumal symbolised the reunion of sacred space and uninterrupted ritual time.

Reconstruction and Architectural Renewal

Epigraphical and chronicle records describe extensive rebuilding activity undertaken by Vijayanagara commanders and provincial governors including:

• Kumara Kampana
• Goppanarya
• Saluva Mangu
• Saluva Gunda

Major works included:

•  gilding of the sacred vimāna
• installation of a new Garuda image
• gold plating of the dhvajasthambha
• repair of shrines of Anjaneya and Nammalvar
• reconstruction of gateways and mandapas
• reinstallation of the image of Tiruppan Alvar

These measures restored both architectural integrity and ritual functionality to the temple complex.

Economic Endowments and Festival Revival

Numerous Vijayanagara inscriptions record royal and military patronage granted to Srirangam.

Donations included:

• villages and agricultural lands,
• flower gardens,
• cattle endowments,
• and large quantities of gold.

As prosperity returned:

• new celebrations emerged,
• and certain festivals came to bear the names of Vijayanagara patrons.

Even today, festivals such as Viruppan Tirunal and Bhupathi Udayar Tirunal preserve memory of this period of royal support.

According to later temple records, the institution controlled nearly 292 villages by the late 15th century, demonstrating its restored economic strength.

Expansion During Continued Vijayanagara Rule

The restoration initiated in the 14th century continued under later Vijayanagara rulers.

Developments included:

• construction of new shrines such as the Vitthala shrine and Madurakavi Alvar shrine,
• creation of additional mandapas,
• introduction of new temple services,
• and laying foundations for monumental outer gopurams later known as Rayagopurams.

Some of these ambitious gateway towers remained unfinished, reflecting the vast scale envisioned during this era.

Administrative Consequences of Restoration

While Vijayanagara patronage restored prosperity, temple administration underwent an important transformation.

Earlier, Srirangam functioned largely under the autonomous supervision of Sri Vaishnava Acharyas, following systems associated with Ramanuja (Udayavar).

During the Vijayanagara period:

• temple management increasingly passed into the hands of royal officers known as Durgadhipatis,
• administrative supervision became linked to imperial governance,
• accountants and officials appointed by the state began overseeing temple affairs.

The Kōyil Oḷugu itself records this transition with some regret, noting that the earlier autonomy enjoyed under religious leadership gradually diminished.

Thus, restoration brought both:

•  prosperity and protection
•  reduced institutional independence.

Custodians of the Later Vijayanagara Period

Records mention temple wardens such as:

• Periyakrishnaraya Uttamanambi
• Srirangacharya Uttamanambi
• Chakraraya and successors

These custodians maintained close relations with Vijayanagara rulers and contributed significantly to the continued growth and stability of the temple.

Historical Outcome

The Vijayanagara intervention transformed Srirangam in lasting ways:

• Worship traditions were permanently restored.
• Economic foundations were rebuilt.
• Architectural expansion accelerated.
• The temple re-emerged as the foremost centre of Sri Vaishnavism.

Yet, the period also marked the beginning of closer integration between temple institutions and imperial administration — a shift that reshaped governance in later centuries.

 

Historical Significance

The exile and return of Namperumal represents one of the most remarkable episodes in Indian temple history:

• a deity preserved through collective devotion,
• ritual continuity maintained beyond sacred geography,
• political restoration enabling religious revival,
• and the rebirth of Srirangam as the foremost centre of Sri Vaishnavism.

The survival of Srirangam was achieved not through royal power alone, but through the coordinated effort of devotees, priests, and ācāryas who preserved tradition across generations.

The historical narrative preserved in temple chronicles finds further confirmation in contemporary inscriptional records of the Vijayanagara period.

 

Inscriptional Evidence of Vijayanagara Patronage at Srirangam

Epigraphical Confirmation of Restoration (1371 CE)

The restoration of the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple during the Vijayanagara period is not preserved only in temple chronicles such as the Kōyil Oḷugu, but is also firmly supported by inscriptional records.

An inscription of Goppanarya, an officer serving under Harihara I, records that in 1371 CE:

• the images of Lord Ranganatha,
• Sri Devi, and
• Bhu Devi

were ceremonially brought back from Tirupati and reinstalled at Srirangam.

This inscription provides independent historical confirmation of the temple’s reconsecration following the disturbed decades of the 14th century.

Endowments Granted After Reinstallation

The same records state that Goppanarya granted substantial resources for the revival of temple activities.

According to the Kōyil Oḷugu:

• nearly 52 villages were endowed to the temple,
• land revenues were assigned for ritual maintenance,
• and grants amounting to 17,000 gold pieces were utilised for restoration works.

These donations restored the economic base necessary for daily worship, festivals, and temple administration.

Role of the Uttamanambi Lineage

Local chronicles and inscriptions indicate that temple endowments during the Vijayanagara period were administered through the Uttamanambi family, who functioned as wardens of the temple.

Royal officers, princes, and private donors channelled gifts through these custodians, ensuring continuity between religious authority and imperial patronage.

Contributions Under Devaraya I

An inscription dated 1415 CE, during the reign of Devaraya I, records further additions to the temple.

Notable works include:

• installation of a newly recast copper image of Garuda, replacing an earlier image lost during earlier disturbances,
• donations of ritual objects,
• strengthening of ceremonial worship infrastructure.

Donations Recorded During Devaraya II (1422–1446 CE)

Subsequent inscriptions from the reign of Devaraya II mention valuable offerings made between 1424 and 1429 CE, including:

• a golden dish,
• gold pedestal for divine images,
• gold lamps (dīpikas),
• a gold kalasa,
• pearl-studded garments,
• and gold plates used in ritual service.

These donations, often funded through contributions from devotees and officials, demonstrate the restored prosperity of the temple.

Protection of Temple Lands

An inscription issued during the reign of Mallikarjuna Raya (1446–1465 CE) ordered that:

revenues from temple lands in the Tiruchirappalli region were to remain under temple control without external interference.

This royal directive reflects attempts to safeguard temple income from excessive taxation and administrative encroachment.

Social Tensions Recorded in Inscriptions

Interestingly, inscriptional and chronicle records also preserve evidence of disputes arising from taxation policies imposed on temple lands.

The Kōyil Oḷugu refers to acts of protest by temple servants opposing unlawful levies, indicating that even during prosperity, negotiations between state authority and temple institutions continued.

Later Vijayanagara Patronage

Further inscriptions mention continued royal devotion:

• Krishnadevaraya granted villages to the temple during his visit in 1516 CE.
• A decade later, temple doors of important mandapas were reportedly gold-plated.
• Records of Achyutaraya (1530–1541 CE) refer to additional gifts made to shrines within the complex.

These inscriptions demonstrate that Vijayanagara patronage extended well beyond initial restoration, sustaining Srirangam for nearly two centuries.

Historical Importance of the Inscriptional Record

Taken together, inscriptional evidence confirms that:

• The return of Namperumal was historically recorded
• Reconstruction was state-supported
• Economic foundations were rebuilt systematically
• Srirangam regained pan-South Indian importance

The Vijayanagara period therefore represents not merely recovery, but the second great age of Srirangam.

 

Conclusion: Survival of a Sacred Civilization

The history of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam during the fourteenth century represents far more than a period of political disturbance. It marks a defining moment in which a living religious institution faced disruption, displacement, and eventual renewal.

Historical records, temple chronicles such as the Kōyil Oḷugu, and inscriptional evidence together reveal a remarkable continuity preserved through collective effort. Priests, devotees, and Sri Vaishnava ācāryas safeguarded sacred images, maintained ritual worship in exile, and ensured that temple tradition survived even when its physical centre was temporarily lost.

The long journey of Namperumal, from Srirangam to distant regions of South India and back again, illustrates how devotion transcended geography. Worship continued not because of royal protection alone, but through organised religious communities committed to preserving sacred order.

The restoration of Srirangam under the Vijayanagara rulers in 1371 CE marked the rebirth of the temple as a major spiritual and cultural centre. Reconstruction of shrines, renewal of festivals, and generous endowments restored both ritual life and economic stability. At the same time, the period introduced new administrative structures that permanently shaped the later history of the institution.

Today, Srirangam stands not merely as one of the largest functioning temple complexes in the world, but as a testimony to resilience — where architecture, devotion, memory, and history converge.

Revered in tradition as Bhūloka Vaikuṇṭha, the earthly abode of Lord Ranganatha, the temple embodies centuries of uninterrupted faith sustained through adversity. The survival of Srirangam was not accidental; it was the result of preservation, sacrifice, and renewal across generations.

For the visiting pilgrim, every prākāra, gateway, and shrine within Srirangam silently recalls this journey — from crisis to restoration — reaffirming the enduring continuity of the Sri Vaishnava tradition.

Though restored under Vijayanagara patronage, the later centuries would witness new political powers shaping Srirangam’s architectural and ritual landscape — a history that continued into the Nayak period and beyond.

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Sources

Primary and Temple Chronicle Sources

• Kōyil Oḷugu (Temple Chronicle of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam)

Epigraphical Sources

• Epigraphia Indica, Archaeological Survey of India — inscriptions relating to the restoration of Srirangam under Vijayanagara rule

• South Indian Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of India

Scholarly Works

• Hari Rao, V. N. The Srirangam Temple: Art and Architecture. Sri Venkateswara University Historical Series No. 8, Tirupati, 1967.
• Appan Venkatachari, Koil Kandadai. The Manipravala Literature of the Srivaishnava Acharyas (12th–15th Century A.D.). Ananthacharya Research Institute, Bombay, 1978.
• Aiyangar, S. Krishnaswami. South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders. Oxford University Press, London–Bombay–Calcutta–Madras, 1921.

Supporting Historical Studies

• Hultzsch, E. — Epigraphical studies on South Indian temples and Vijayanagara inscriptions
• Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. A History of South India

Disclaimer:
This article is based on temple chronicles such as the Kōyil Oḷugu, epigraphical records, published inscriptional reports, and modern historical research. Certain narratives preserved in Sri Vaishnava tradition represent devotional memory alongside historical interpretation. The content is presented for educational and cultural purposes, and readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and academic studies for detailed historical analysis.

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